Definition and Examples of Defective Verbs in English

Definition and Examples of Defective Verbs in English In English punctuation, inadequate action word is a customary term for aâ verb that doesnt display all the run of the mill types of a conventionalâ verb.â English modular action words (can, could, may, might, must, should, will, should, will, andâ would)â are deficient in that they need distinctiveâ third-individual solitary and nonfinite forms.â â As illustratedâ below, conversations of deficient action words commonlyâ appeared in nineteenth century school sentence structures; however,â modern language specialists and grammarians once in a while utilize the term. David Crystals Take In language structure, [defective is] a conventional depiction of words which don't show all the guidelines of the class to which they have a place. The English modular action words, for instance, are deficient in that they don't allow the typical scope of action word structures, for example, an infinitive or participle structures (*to may,â *shalling, and so on.). As a result of its derogatory implications all in all utilization, the term should be utilized mindfully. It will in general be avoidedâ in present day semantic investigation (which talks more as far as unpredictable structures and special cases to rules), however will be experienced in investigations of etymological historiography. The differentiation among damaged and unpredictable should be valued: a flawed structure is a missing structure; a sporadic structure is available, yet doesn't fit in with the standard overseeing the class to which it belongs.(David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, sixth ed. Blackwell, 2008) Be careful and Begone A few action words are termedâ defective;â they are, for example, need a portion of the parts normally credited to verbs. Beware is aâ defective action word beingâ usedâ onlyâ in the objective or to give an alert. . . . Begone may be accounted anotherâ defective verb like beware. Begone is a compound, made up ofâ beâ andâ gone,â that isâ getâ away; andâ bewareâ is created ofâ beâ andâ wareâ found in aware, and wary.(John R. Facial hair, Lessons in English, LXII. The Popular Educator, Vol. 3, 1860) The Defective Copula Is A deficient verbâ is one which has not all the standard verbal forms. Is, the copula, is sporadic. It is additionally imperfect as it has no goal or self-governing structures, no verbal thing or verbal adjective.(Irish-English/English-Irish Easy Reference Dictionary. Roberts Rinehart, 1998) George Campbell on the Defective Verb Ought [I]n request to communicate the past with theâ defective action word should, we should utilize the ideal of the infinitive, and state for instance, he should have done it; this in that action word being the main conceivable method of recognizing the past from the present.(George Campbell, The Philosophy of Rhetoric, Volume 1, 1776) Conversations of Defective Verbs in nineteenth Century School Grammars What do you mean by a Defective Verb?A Defective Verbâ is a Verb that is flawed; that will be, that can't be conjugated through all the Moods and Tenses, for example, the Verb Ought, which hasâ just been repeated.Which are the Defective Verbs?The Auxiliary Verbs are all in all faulty, in light of the fact that they have no Participles; neither do they concede another helping Verb to be put before them.Repeat the Defective Verbs.The Defective Verbs are, Do, Shall, Will, Can, May, Let, Must, Ought.How are the Defective Verbs used?They are constantly joined to the Infinitive Mood of some other Verb; as, I dare say, I should gain proficiency with my lesson.Must suggests need, as Iâ must progress admirably, for example it is fundamental that I should, or I am obliged to do as such: why? since I should, for example it is my obligation to do well.Are the Auxiliary Verbs Have, and Am, or Be, Defective Verbs?No; they areâ perfect, and shaped like other Verbs.(Ellin Devis, The Accide nce, or, First Rudiments of English Grammar, seventeenth ed., 1825) A List of Defective Verbs Imperfect action words are those that can be utilized uniquely in some specific modes and tenses. They are very few and are as per the following: ambeencancouldmaymightshallshouldwaswillwould Different Discussions on Defective Verbs Loveâ is not aâ defectiveâ verb;â you can utilize it in any disposition and tense. You can say, I love, I adored, I have cherished, I had cherished, I will or will adore, I will have cherished, I may, can or should cherish: butâ canâ is aâ defective verb. You can say I can, but you can't state I have can, I had can, I will can or will can, I may can, or must can.(J.H. Hull, Lectures on the English Language: Comprehending the Principles and Rules of Syntactical Parsing on a New and Highly Improved System,â 8th ed., 1834) Aâ defectiveâ verbâ is that which needs a portion of the modes and tenses; while anâ irregularâ verbâ has all the modes and tenses, though irregularly formed.(Rufus William Bailey, English Grammar: A Simple, Concise, and Comprehensive Manual of the English Language, 10th ed., 1855)  Verbs which are not utilized in all the mind-sets and tenses are called Defective. However, the understudy must notâ supposeâ from this that Defective establishes a different or fourth classâ of action word. This isn't at all the case. Quoth, for example, is a Defective verb, yet in addition Intransitive. Again mind is a Defective action word, yet in addition Transitive. Once more, may is a Defective action word, yet in addition Auxiliary.(John Collinson Nesfield, English Grammar Past and Present: With Appendices on Prosody, Synonyms, and Other Outlying Subjects, 1898)

Freedom :: American America History

Opportunity In the Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass composed by Fredrick Douglass, he and the remainder of the slaves in 1840 must be dubious to endure. Douglass utilized slyness to further his potential benefit and made it into a positive activity, opportunity. Douglass experienced numerous hardships and upsetting trials. He saw his more youthful sibling get his head slammed in, that in it self is terrible enough. He caught Mr. Auld, one of his lords, telling Mrs. Auld that it was dangerous to show a captive to peruse (Douglass 42). Douglass accepting this as inspiration and endeavored to figure out how to peruse and compose. Douglass' next ace was Edward Covey, a notable slave breaker, for a year. Brood was exceptionally dubious. He would claim to ride into town, at that point stroll back and sneak up on the slaves as to alarm and delude them. At some point, after an extreme beating by Covey, (Douglass 86) Douglass ran for shelter for one night from a slave named Sandy Jenkins. Jenkins accepted that a specific root had mysterious powers and disclosed to Douglass that in the event that he wore it on his correct side no white man could beat him (Douglass 90). He restored the following day wearing the root, and incredibly, Covey didn't beat him for a period. A couple of days after the fact, Covey attempted to tie him up for a beating. Douglass retaliated and following a two-hour battle, Covey surrendered. Since Covey would not like to demolish his notoriety for being a slave breaker, he never sent Douglass to the specialists to be rebuffed for hitting a white man. Douglass utilized Covey's own notoriety aga inst him and fooled him into never crossing and rebuffing him again. At the point when Douglass' year was done with Covey, he went to live with Mr. Freeland. Freeland turned into his new ace and had two slaves. A short time after Douglass came to live there, he started enthusiasm for the others and started to instruct them to peruse and write in Sabbath school. It was comprehended among all who came, that there must be as meager showcase about it as could be expected under the circumstances. (Douglass 103) Douglass figured out how to show many, whom may languish up to nine lashes over leaving their manor (Douglass 104). The strict bosses thought the slaves were spending the Sabbath in wrestling, boxing or drinking whisky, when from the start they were figuring out how to peruse and compose. Opportunity :: American America History Opportunity In the Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass composed by Fredrick Douglass, he and the remainder of the slaves in 1840 must be dubious to endure. Douglass utilized deceit to further his potential benefit and made it into a positive activity, opportunity. Douglass experienced numerous hardships and upsetting trials. He saw his more youthful sibling get his head slammed in, that in it self is awful enough. He caught Mr. Auld, one of his lords, telling Mrs. Auld that it was dangerous to show a captive to peruse (Douglass 42). Douglass accepting this as inspiration and endeavored to figure out how to peruse and compose. Douglass' next ace was Edward Covey, a notable slave breaker, for a year. Bunch was precarious. He would profess to ride into town, at that point stroll back and sneak up on the slaves as to frighten and beguile them. At some point, after an extreme beating by Covey, (Douglass 86) Douglass ran for shelter for one night from a slave named Sandy Jenkins. Jenkins accepted that a specific root had supernatural powers and disclosed to Douglass that on the off chance that he wore it on his correct side no white man could beat him (Douglass 90). He restored the following day wearing the root, and shockingly, Covey didn't beat him for a period. A couple of days after the fact, Covey attempted to tie him up for a beating. Douglass retaliated and following a two-hour battle, Covey surrendered. Since Covey would not like to destroy his notoriety for being a slave breaker, he never sent Douglass to the specialists to be rebuffed for hitting a white man. Douglass utilized Covey's own notoriety ag ainst him and fooled him into never crossing and rebuffing him again. At the point when Douglass' year was done with Covey, he went to live with Mr. Freeland. Freeland turned into his new ace and had two slaves. A short time after Douglass came to live there, he started enthusiasm for the others and started to instruct them to peruse and write in Sabbath school. It was comprehended among all who came, that there must be as meager showcase about it as could reasonably be expected. (Douglass 103) Douglass figured out how to show many, whom may languish up to nine lashes over leaving their estate (Douglass 104). The strict bosses thought the slaves were spending the Sabbath in wrestling, boxing or drinking whisky, when from the start they were figuring out how to peruse and compose.

How to Write a Research Paper For Science Fairs

How to Write a Research Paper For Science FairsIf you want to know how to write a research paper for science fairs, it's pretty easy. As long as you keep your point of view simple and straight to the point, you should be able to have the subject matter come out fine. The presentation that you choose to do your paper is very important as well. By knowing the correct presentation method, you will be able to come up with great examples of what others might do in their papers.Before you can learn how to write a research paper for science fairs, you must first get an idea of what topics are often required. You can find this information by looking online or talking to your local school counselor. These schools are already aware of what the requirements for this type of contest are so you shouldn't have a problem finding out if you know the right questions to ask.The first thing you will need to learn how to do is a short paragraph about what the topic is. If you are writing about fish, for example, you will need to include this information, and then move on to the points that you would like to address in your paper. These points are what will make up your paper, so make sure you address each one before moving on to the next.Make sure you pay attention to sentence structure. For example, you may need to use the word 'which' instead of the word 'because.' Try to keep all of your sentences short and simple, and make sure they follow a certain pattern. Don't try to cram as much information into a small space, so don't get too hung up on the structure.Another important thing to remember when learning how to write a research paper for science fairs is to keep it to a minimum. All your points need to be delivered in one sentence and one paragraph. You don't need to ramble on. Just get your point across, and that should be enough.The final thing to remember when learning how to write a research paper for science fairs is to consider different presentation methods. By researc hing different forms of presentation and reading different materials, you will be able to identify what is best. If you are a creative person, think of a way to use PowerPoint or some other type of presentation that you could look at yourself to see how it might work.To make sure you are well versed in the techniques that are used for this type of contest, you may want to go online and look at various websites that will teach you how to write a research paper for science fairs. By knowing the format of such contests, you will be able to determine what works best for you. These places will also offer helpful tips and hints, so you will have an easier time coming up with a great presentation.Now that you know how to write a research paper for science fairs, you can finally get cracking on your project. Everyone loves having something to do on their college projects, and you'll be sure to have a lot of fun! After you've completed your project, take the time to show it off to your scien ce fair judges, and you may even get some new ideas for future projects.

Dangers Involved with Internet Usage Essays - 1034 Words

Dangers Involved with Internet Usage The Internet today is constantly advancing and expanding. Over the last several years it has changed the way that we learn, communicate, shop and conduct business. Although there are many advantages to the Internet, there are also many serious problems that occur with Internet use. Some of the problems of the Internet include, cyberstalking and identity theft and Internet addiction. Although the Internet cannot be blamed for the creation of these problems, using the Internet as a tool has made these problems bigger. The term cyberstalking was unknown to most people ten years ago, however due to lower costs and the increased access to computers, today it is a commonly used†¦show more content†¦Cyberstalkers often pretend to be someone else and get their victims to open up to them and share personal information with them. These thieves can then use the information to do a number of things. They can open a new credit account using your name, date of birth, and Social Sec urity number and use your card, not pay the bill and it is reported to your account. They can call your credit card company change the address obtain a new card and use it. They can even establish phones in your name or open up bank accounts and write bad checks on that account. (Netscape) There are several way that you can protect yourself from becoming a victim of cyberstalking and identity theft over the Internet. Some tips include: *Do not share personal information in public spaces anywhere online, nor give it to strangers, including in e-mail or chat rooms. Do not use your real name or nickname as your screen name or user Id. Pick a name that is gender and race neutral. And do not post personal information as past of any user profiles. *Be extremely cautious about meeting online acquaintances in person. If you do choose to meet, do so in a public place and take along a friend. *Make sure that your ISP and Internet Relay Chat (IRC) network have an acceptable use policy that prohibits cyberstalking. And if you network fails to respond to your complaints consider switching to a provider that is more responsive to user complaints. *If a situation online becomesShow MoreRelatedSolutions For The Over Use Of Social Networks For Youths1505 Words   |  7 Pagespeople prefer talking on the internet instead of face to face. That was a very popular statement at the beginning of 21st century. However, with time goes by, one of the new technologies—social networking— has begun to show a dark side. Although using different kinds of smart devices like iPhone, laptop, and tablet PC to log into social network is not inherently bad, some young people have been abusing this technology. 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According to the United States Census, 88.4% households across the United States of America have one or more computers in the house. Out of the 88.4% with computers, 78.1% have high speed Internet. Keeping those statistics in mind, it is no wonderRead MoreInternet Safety And The Internet954 Words   |  4 PagesInternet safety has been an extensive issue for children and adolescents since accuse to the Internet has become readily available in homes. With Internet use increasing at such rapid rates and a large proportion of adolescents using the Internet daily, the awareness of Internet safety should be addressed. The term Internet safety can be defined as â€Å"the knowledge of maximizing an individuals safety to private information, and self protection from using the Internet†. 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Iago And Betrayal In “Othello” - 2545 Words

AP 05/11/11 Iago And Betrayal In â€Å"Othello† â€Å"Othello† is one of the most successful plays in Shakespeare’s collection. One of the subjects the tragedy addresses is betrayal which is a crucial part of the play that helps the author develop events to bring it to its climax. Iago’s character symbolizes disloyalty, but what are the motives of his treachery? It seems like there is not enough reason for his actions. By creating Iago in â€Å"Othello† as perhaps a masterpiece villain comparing to all his other plays, Shakespeare introduces to the audience and reader an evil type of person who unfortunately exists in society, and he suggests that disloyalty is just part of such person’s nature, so one could betray for the sake of betrayal itself.†¦show more content†¦Iago’s main goal is focused on taking a revenge from Othello. To be able to accomplish his plan, first Iago provides his â€Å"loyal† service to Othello, â€Å"In following him I follow but myself† ( Act 1. Scene 1. 57). Drama theorist Ferguson notices that Iago is a type of person who knows how to control his emotions when he is told so by his motive in order to present himself as a reliable man (222). Once he gains the trust of Othello, he starts planting the evil seeds â€Å"Hell and night/ Must bring this monstrous birth to the world’s light†(Act 2. Scene 1. 402-403). After staging the drunk riot and getting Cassio fired from his lieutenancy, Iago starts poisoning Othello’s mind with a suspicion that Cassio and Desdemona have a love affair. Iago’s perfect plan develops when Desdemona keeps pleading Othello to reinstate Cassio which makes Othello both mad and jealous, â€Å"The Moor already changes with my poison† (Act 3. Scene 3. 329). To secure his strong footing before Othello, Iago makes him go mad because of jealousy from one side, and warns him to take a heed against jealousy from the other side, â€Å"O beware my lord of jealousy; / It is the green-eyed monster, which doth mock / The meat it feeds on† (Act 3. scene 3. 167). Ferguson analyzes that Iago carefully continues wearing his most compassionate mask, and meantime by gathering any false facts needed, he warns Othello not to jump into any conclusion (223).Show MoreRelatedFemale Betrayal in The Winters Tale compared to Iago in Othello687 Words   |  3 Pages The Winter’s Tale and Othello, both by William Shakespeare, contain fantasies of female betrayal. In both play’s these fantasies are aggregated by something, be it Iago in Othello or Hermione’s pregnancy in The Winter’s Tale. Iago confronts Othello in act 3.3, eluding to his wife’s betrayal. Both Othello and Leontes have a seemingly sudden o nset of jealousy. However, Othello’s jealousy forms later in the play than Leontes’. This is important when comparing the two because thereRead MoreStandards, Biases And Betrayal : Othello By William Shakespeare And Frankenstein 1316 Words   |  6 PagesDaniel Mascola World Literature 5/31/16 Standards, Biases and Betrayal Othello by William Shakespeare and Frankenstein by Mary Shelley share a common theme: betrayal. Victor Frankenstein betrays the monster he created, and Iago betrays his superior in command, Othello. In both cases, the person betrayed was viewed as an outcast whose physical appearance threatened established societal norms. In late sixteenth century Europe, the vast majority of people were white. The belief that they were raciallyRead MoreAnalysis Of Shakespeare s Othello, By William Shakespeare1040 Words   |  5 Pagestexts are considered together, their universal themes and ideas lead to greater understanding, appreciation and insight of both the old and the new. 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Such actsRead MoreOthello by William Shakespeare1389 Words   |  6 Pages Iago has been frequently judged as an evil villain for the meticulous acts he makes after Othello betrays him. Though he was never a murderous villain until his downfall he is unfairly viewed as the antagonist in the play. Since the commencement Iago was an honest military man who never wronged anybody up until they wronged him. He was stripped of a military promotion he had been looking forward to accepting by Othello the general and not only this he was also informed that Othello might haveRead MoreWhy Is Shakespeares Othello Still Relevant in Todays Audiences?940 Words   |  4 PagesWhy is Shakespeare’s â€Å"Othello† still relevant in today’s audiences? â€Å"When you begin a journey of revenge, start by digging two graves: one for your enemy, and one for yourself.† – Jodi Picoult. Othello is a very well-known Shakespearian text and is still relevant to today’s audiences. The themes in â€Å"Othello† are still applicable to today’s many audiences; Betrayal is a key theme presented in Othello, and is also still relevantRead MoreTheme Of Jealousy In Othello979 Words   |  4 Pages Jealousy and betrayal are two words that often go hand in hand, especially in a relationship. In a relationship, the act of envy usually leads to betrayal when a person is being attentive of the other’s success and achievements. These type of relationships always have unpleasant endings that can be as bad as claiming the lives of innocent people around them. This shows how jealousy, betrayal, revenge can negatively impact people’s lives and can lead to a series of tragedies in the life of a heroRead MoreIs I t Possible For A Small Piece Of Cloth?879 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Shakespearean play â€Å"Othello†, it is very possible. There are many factors that lead up to these deaths, but the handkerchief is the most significant. It is the most significant because of all the chaos it causes. Nevertheless, the play depicts a story about Othello and Desdemona, a couple that deems unacceptable in Iago’s eyes. Thus, Iago devises a plan in order to ruin their marriage. His plan includes stealing the handkerchief that was given to Desdemona from Othello. At this point it is clearRead MoreBetraying and Lying in Othello by William Shakespeare1726 Words   |  7 Pagesthe root of all evil today. People have made it an everyday thing to lie and betray people just because they like to see people broken in misery. People also lie and betray people because of jealousy they may have towards them. The tragedy of Othello explains why some people are not trustworthy. Just because some people feel like they are miserable, they try everything in their power to make the other individual miserable as well. Enemies come in different colors, shapes, and forms, making itRead MoreOthello, By Director Iqbal Khan891 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to director Iqbal Khan the state of not having certainty makes Othello a tragedy as a play. As a character not having certainty allowed his mind to become polluted and create a jealous monster. The relationship between Othello and Iago jeopardizes the idea of Othello’s character. The series betrayals are drawn upon by the false whisperings of Iago. He allowed Iago to manipulate his thoughts and conquer his conscience. During the final scene not having certainty deteriorates Othello’s character

My Life At 75. Introduction. At Seventy-Five Years Old

My Life at 75 Introduction At seventy-five years old I imagine my life to be vibrant and multidimensional. I looked at the realities of my relatives at this age including my grandparents and parents to give me a better idea of what my life might look like. The people who were alive at this age were healthy some still road horses or climbed mountains, and my father still bikes long distances at 73. So I see myself as very active, both in the outdoors, as well as the community. I see my life I think I will continue traveling often and volunteering. At this moment I am unsure where I will be living, possibly overseas. I know I will be in close contact with friends and family. I am choosing to see my life as healthy as the family members†¦show more content†¦My current lifestyle could use an increase in low impact exercise and healthy eating. While I try to do both, I know that as time goes on it becomes more important to do this regularly as it affects my health. Family history is dichotomous some fam ily members have thrived in older adulthood while others did not make it into their 70s, and by simply looking at their lifestyle choices it would have been hard to guess who would live the longest. Those who thrived at this time of life had very active and meaningful lives. The family members who died younger made healthy lifestyle choices, but got cancer or some other life-threatening disease at a younger age, and were healthy until the disease came on suddenly. So, I am hoping I fall into the category of the people who are active into older age. I hope to continue swimming on a regular basis, and possibly play tennis. If I am alive at 75 based on family history I will have no major health issues but will have the normal effects of aging. I may also have high blood pressure or increased risk of pneumonia as this was common in some family members. This is partially due to the fact that the artery walls stiffen over time, and my lungs are more susceptible to illness due to a weakene d immune system. Cognitive Status My cognitive status will be mostly fully functional. I will have a slower memory, and will have to take the time to keep a schedule of some kind, and may need a reminder toShow MoreRelatedIntroduction. Thesis Statement: . The Katzenbach Center1665 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Thesis Statement: The Katzenbach Center survey success was based on organizational change initiatives not just the participants response, many people argue. In this paper, I propose to prove participants who took the survey were in fact of sound mind, and effective to get the right responses as a result. The percentages of participants who took the survey says a lot about the change task they underwent effectiveness and failures. Their experience with organizational change controlRead MoreThe United States Is The Most Powerful Nation Of The World1792 Words   |  8 Pages INTRODUCTION The image of the USA has become negative. Do you agree with this statement? The United States is the most powerful nation in the world. As this statement tells you even if you are in this position, other countries with different moral values will look at our values as negative, therefore in their eyes our country is viewed as negative. Our progress and ability to better our lives in this country makes us apart from every other nation in the world. While other nations around the worldRead MoreThe United States Is The Most Powerful Nation Of The World1835 Words   |  8 PagesINTRODUCTION The image of the United States has become negative. Do you agree with this statement? The United States is the most powerful nation in the world. As this statement tells you even if you are in this position, other countries with different moral values will look at our values as negative, therefore in their eyes our country is viewed as negative. Our progress and ability to better our lives in this country makes us apart from every other nation in the world. While other nations aroundRead MoreTechnology And Its Effects On Health And Social Security System4104 Words   |  17 PagesIntroduction By 2050, the number of Americans sixty-five and older is going to double, to more than eighty million. Moreover, research found that almost ninety percent of Americans, including those older than seventy, want to age in place for at least the next five to ten years of their lives. As the American population ages, and as the digital health field expands, technologies addressing the unique challenges of aging in place will become more of a reality. 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TEACHING.

Introduction There has been a reasonable gradual shift in the approach of teaching writing in the classroom from product approach comprising grammar-translation, controlled-to-free, paragraph pattern, grammar syntax organization approaches (mostly prevalent till early 1970s) to communicative approach (mid 1970s), process (late 1970s - Early 1980s), English for Academic Purposes (Mid 1980s) and Genre Approach (1990s). However, there are array of opinions, arguments and concerns over the fact that which style works best with the students in developing their ability to express their ideas with freedom and at the same time with correct composition and coherence. All these approaches focuses at different aspect of English writing and requires relevant changes in the role of teachers and students, their involvement in the class room, nature of exercises and in the feedback method. However, they provide an English Language Trainer a flexibility to implement one or a combination of more than one approac h (James, 1993) considering the time, purpose, need, cultural milieu and academic level of students and their proficiency in the English Language. This piece of writing will not delve into different approaches of teaching writing in the class room but is intended to explore the process approach of teaching writing, its implications on the teaching methodology and class room management and possible ways through which teachers might respond to assure that both the need of learners/students and the objective of the course is met. Philosophy of the Process Approach in Teaching English Writing The underline philosophy of the process approach is to provide students/learners the ability to learn the processes that leads to the acceptable finished text or product together with a degree of freedom of expression based on their own fluency of language. The quote process cannot be inferred from the product, any more than wheat can be inferred from bread (Murray, 1982:18) aptly describes the importance of this approach while teaching English writing in the classroom. Before discussing the process approach further, a brief account of the research that guided the attention of teachers on the process of writing would be relevant here. The main influence on the development of process approach was the work of two cognitive psychologists Flower and Hayes, who proposed a writing model based on their research on L1 writers (Flower and Hayes, 1981) that became the basic tool for the further research on the process of writing and is widely used since then by researchers. However, the writin g model of Flower and Hayes was found incompatible considering the writers as skilled and unskilled (Raimes, 1985) and thus led to the development of another L1 writing model that emphasizes on the two types of writing styles - knowledge-telling (writing style of 12 year old) and knowledge-transforming (synthesis and interpretation of knowledge) and hence follow different writing processes (Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1985). The other significant research that influenced the development of process approach was the work of Grabe and Kaplan (1996) who suggested other dimensions to research such as education, cognitive side of writing, discourse analysis and the rhetorical study (led to genre approach). The process approach is more to develop a cyclical and recursive style of writing which involves continuously and simultaneously the pre-writing (planning), writing and re-writing processes (Smith, 1982: 104). The proponents of teaching writing with greater emphasis on the writing as the process Escholz (1980), White (1988) and Jordon (1997) indicate towards the drawbacks of product approach such as model-based learning that fosters the sense of imitation in students with little scope for students to actually learn the processes involved in obtaining the acceptable final product as the main reasons behind the emergence of this approach (Escholz, 1980:24). The process approach provides ample opportunities to students to make their own choices related to the direction of their writing by series of classroom discussions, tasks, drafting and re-drafting their writings and with the formative feedback provided by teachers. The approach also enables students to make improvements in their own composition (Jordan, 1997: 168) unlike in the product approach which leaves the task of correcting and improvement to the teachers. As this approach puts more emphasis on the purpose, the audience and the writers process it involves significant brainstorming to put together the thoughts and ideas, drafting and re-drafting and an increased focus on both the content and the language simultaneously encouraging students to devote time to writing and provide peer feedback. The two critical component of the process approach to writing are awareness and intervention (Susser, 1994). However, before discussing the importance of these two components in the process pedagogy it is exceedingly important to understand the difference between the writing process and process writing which are often confused by stakeholders (students, teachers, school and institutions and authorities). In the words of Susser, writing process is nothing but the writing or composing, however process writing is the process-based teaching techniques (Susser, 1994: 32-34). Now let us discuss the two important components out of which the Awareness means that the students should be made aware that writing is a process, each type of writing requires different processes and these processes are not merely giving words to the ideas but they comprise the judgment of format or genre, a thorough consideration of audience and use of appropriate vocabulary. Intervention, on the other hand, is cons idered as the integral part of process approach which emphasizes the role of teachers as facilitators who help students at different stages of the writing process through classroom exercises and activities (Susser, 1994:35). These two components are complimentary to each other and help in achievement of the objective of teaching process. Salient Features of Process Approach In order to devise a strategy of teaching writing in the classroom a thorough understanding of the focus points of process strategy is a pre-requisite. Hence, the salient features of the process approach are listed below (Hairston, 1982) with an aim to provide a kind of to-do-list for teachers - who plan to use this approach of teaching - to help them ensure that they cover these areas during the planning of their classroom methodology. These features are taken from the process writing framework provided by Hairston (1982). The process approach dramatically changes the role of teachers from an Instructor - who correct the writers text, imposes on them their own writing style, instruct student to follow guidelines and model form of writing; to a Facilitator who guides the writing process with intervention at various stages providing students direction leaving onus of correcting and improvement of text on them. The process approach emphasizes on learning of the ways to explore ideas and content in a particular context. The main basis of the approach is the various linguistic and specific researches done on composing process of writing. It also takes ideas from other fields for example cognitive psychology. The assignments used in the class extensively cover the purpose of writing, audience and the occasions. Assessment judges the compatibility of produced text keeping in mind the writers intentions and readers needs. It takes in to accounts the more realistic recursive/cyclic nature of writing proces s instead of looking at it as a linear process and uses a variety of writing models and processes that are expressive and expository in nature. It considers writing as a creative activity that can be described, analyzed and taught effectively in the classroom using right methodology. Also, iterates that the teachers, who are writers, can be more effective in teaching writing to students. It views writing as a learning, developing and communication skill. Process Approach and the Role of Teachers The pre-dominant use of teaching writing in the classroom focusing on the product approach over so many years has resulted in teachers being predisposed to using class exercises such as sentence completion, syntax correction and making logical connections while teaching writing. However, during the process teachers are heavily involved in the correction and improvement of students composition themselves and in a sense impose their writing style on students. On the contrary, in the process approach the role of teachers become more like a facilitator where they encourage students to do improvement or correction of the composition on their own by providing them formative feedback. The role of teachers starts with the very fact that they have to bring writing as a classroom activity instead of leaving it on students as homework. The process approach is built around the cyclic model of writing proposed by White and Arndt (1991), hence, it will be useful to describe the role of teachers fo r each component of writing process postulated by cyclic model such as Generating Ideas, Focusing, Structuring, Drafting, Evaluating and Re-viewing. Generating Ideas It is the most important component as it sets the tone for the writing process. Teachers are supposed to initiate the thinking process of writers and help them through motivating them and providing guidance, direction, clues, situations, images, and food for thought throughout the activity. Focusing The setting up of central theme to start writing about is the very critical and perhaps the foundation of writing process. As students brainstorm and gather ideas they struggle to collaborate these ideas to derive a central theme for further action. The intervention of teachers is greatly required in helping student focus on the purpose of writing i.e. theme. Certain activities described in the cyclic model (White and Arndt, 1991:44) such as fast writing and loop writing can be used to enhance the results during this stage. Structuring It is an on-going process not a one-stage process and basically deals with the channelization of ideas in a way that make sense and appeal to the reader and most importantly can convey the subject matter in a logical way. For example deciding on the introduction, conclusion and presentation of information. The role of teacher in this stage is to provide necessary guidance and support in defining a clear structure for writing, however, only direction should be given letting student learn it by doing it. The main activities that are suggested for this process are experimenting with arrangement, identification of organizing principal and its effect on text by studying text (White and Arndt, 1991:78). Drafting This is the stage at which student produces his/her first draft and the role of teachers here is to make student aware of different styles of opening and closing a text, a piece of writing or a paragraph and encouraging them to make their writing appealing and interesting to read. Teachers may also do one outline of the task just to show the students an expert way of doing that. The different activities suggested here are exercises aimed at individual and group compositions with extensive intervention from teachers (White and Arndt, 1991:78). Evaluating Often at this stage, teachers dictating approach defeats the very motive of the process approach as they start correcting the text produced by students discouraging the idea of self-evaluation. Teachers have to ensure that students themselves are the only evaluators of their work. This is the basic development which in broader perspective will help students life-long. Also, teachers have to be very careful the way they give feedback to students, considering their cultural backgrounds Collective and Individualistic Cultures (Hofstede, 1980) - as they tend to take teachers suggestions as instructions and may follow them religiously. Peer feedback can be exercised here and more precisely use of peer feedback from L1 to L2 writers and vice versa would be fruitful in encouraging students to self-evaluate their work through analysis (White and Arndt, 1991:78). Reviewing This is more like a habit which should be inculcated in the students to have a final re-view of their writing which helps in spotting gaps in the final product such as any correction required or induction of new ideas or further re-arrangement of ideas to make it more coherent. The role of teacher here is to make students aware of the importance and essence of re-viewing. The basic activities suggested at this stage are checking coherence and logical progressing of the text, its division and assessment of its impact on readers (White and Arndt, 1991:136). Implication of process approach on the class room Management Teachers taking a shift from the product approach to the process approach must be aware of the practical implications it will have on the management of classroom while teaching. In the words of Wason it would be wrong to suppose that there is one best way to understand how people write (Wason, 1981a:340). This precisely indicate that teachers cannot really find a suitable way of teaching that caters to the need of group of learners who have different needs and hence required to pay attention on one-to-one basis, which in a sense is more demanding. Given the characteristics of the process approach it demands a whole new approach to teaching writing. The implications of process approach are mentioned below under various subheads - Implications on course content The course content continues to focus on the basic teaching about the language, however, there is some change required in the content and delivery considering L1 and L2 writers. For L2 writers, more emphasis should be on the vocabulary and they should also be made to read and brainstorm extensively during the course as it is imperative to perform writing task whereas for L1 writers the emphasis should be more on grammar and sentence construction. On the whole, the basic idea of the course structure should be to provide enough opportunities for learners to write with personal involvement. Implications on Class room Assignments Students often perceive the classroom exercises as compulsion and mere a way of getting good grades that makes them be less involved personally. In such situations ability of teachers to convince writers the wider perspective of assignment, which is not the evaluation for grades but the improvement and to build a foundation for future writing tasks is the key. This would also help writers to be more committed and involved in the effective writing which would further make them to think about their private conception of their writing task (Galbraith, 1981). The best idea that could be utilized here is the provision of autonomy to students in choosing their own topics which would result in students having greater idea of audience and purpose, however, teachers may choose to set direction in terms of type of writing and methods of choosing a topic. Further, It would help teachers in determining the skilled and unskilled writers and in choosing ways to deal with their individual needs. Fo r instance, skilled writers consider purpose and audience while writing and write reader-based prose from the beginning whereas unskilled writers do not consider purpose and audience while writing and need assignments challenging them to think about these elements in order to produce good product. Also, unskilled writers initially write writer-based prose but after the guidance and as they develop, shift to reader-based prose mode later on (Flower, 1979). The list of processes such as discussion, brainstorming, taking notes, fastwriting, rough draft, preliminary self evaluation, structuring text, first draft, peer evaluation, conference, second draft, self-evaluation/editing, finished draft, final response to draft (White and Arndt, 1991:7) involved in the production of a decent piece of writing provides ample scope to decide on the activities to be chosen during the classroom teaching. Some techniques that can be used in the pedagogy are brainstorming, cubing (in which students ask themselves a flurry of question about any topic), wet-ink writing (student write for ten minutes and then pick up the idea from the text and then write about that idea again and so on), role playing and the idea of writing-centres (Ronesi, 1995) among others. Implication on feedback mechanism The process approach requires more participation from the students as it considers writing as an activity and encourages peer feedback and thereby the process requires relative changes in the classroom setting. The success of process pedagogy depends heavily on feedback mechanism as it provides necessary guidance to students that comprise mainly teacher-student feedback and peer feedback. Teachers have to balance their feedback keeping in view that neither they dictate the writing process by providing feedback in the form of guidelines - as students then religiously follow that and stop thinking, nor they should provide less feedback so as to make it useless (Zamel, 1985). However, unfortunately, researchers found in most cases the feedback given to student are in the form of guidelines. Hence, it is appropriate to mention and advise the idea of process-feedback as proposed by White and Arndt (1991) which advocates provision of feedback in the form of suggestions and not instructions , should provide hints only not the complete solution (to encourage self-evaluation) and should be given on both the good things and on improvement areas. Also teachers should act as readers not as language experts or possibly just like fellow students and not instructors while responding to the text. Keeping the peer feedback in the view, teachers need to group the native English speaking students and students with English as a second language together to have more comprehensive and valuable peer feedback. The underline idea here is to make L2 writers learn from the L1 writers development on the cultural aspects that would help them in contextual writings. Implications related to teacherstudent involvement and evaluation The process approach encourages students towards creative writing and to take up writing as a problem solving activity (Flower and Hayes, 1980a). But this could lead to a kind of problem for teachers related to the selection of right kind of problems to be worked on in the class room with an aim to improve students linguistic capabilities as well as provide them freedom to experiment with vocabulary. This situation underlines the importance of involvement of both student and teacher in the process of learning during the course. As the process of teaching involved a lot of activities such as drafting and re-drafting for a number of times, it is important to keep in mind that students may lose motivation which can only be overcome through creating ways to involve students in the process constantly. The other area of concern in the process approach which has far reaching implications on classroom management is Evaluation. Evaluation on the face of it looks difficult to handle in the process approach as it produces a lot of text during the course. Further, the approach to evaluation also poses a degree of challenge in this pedagogy. In the words of Hairston, the written text should be evaluated by teachers based on parameters of fulfillment of writers intentions and the audience need which results in the difficulty for evaluators as to how can they know the writers intentions? The other difficulty is the determining as what is to be evaluated, the process or the product and this results in a challenging situation for teachers as to who should be rated high the one who make a lot of changes to the text during the re-drafting or the one who makes less changes during the writing process and produced quality text. It would be worth mentioning here the two contradictory arguments on t his issue. Beach (1976) in his writings advocated extensive revisers as better writers than the non revisers; on the contrary Dieterich (1976:302) opines that there seems no logic in proclaiming that revising contains inherent worth. Implications related to L1 and L2 writers It makes logical sense that adoption of process approach has different implications for L1 and L2 learners considering their level of proficiency and individual needs. Hence, necessary changes to the classroom approaches should be made to make it more suitable to L1 and L2 writers. We know that there are marked similarities in L1 and L2 writers for example in composition process, however, same approach of teaching would not work and hence require careful planning and execution of teaching (Fulcher, 1997: 16-18). Various researches done in this area ( Zamel (1983), Arndt (1987), Cumming (1989), Hall (1990)) comparing L1 and L2 writers have revealed that transporting teaching techniques from L1 to L2 is extremely forbidden and teachers should avoid forcing one writing technique on all students neglecting the differences among them. Conclusion The process approach has been acknowledged as a suitable approach for teaching writing in the classroom as far as the needs and development of students are concerned, however, the way teachers respond to the pedagogy is crucial. The features, useful activities and its implications of the process approach discussed in the paper only serve as a limited guide to teachers and majority of onus and judgment lies in the hands of teachers and their effectiveness determines the end result. Teachers need to pay attention to the evaluation process and should exercise a balance while evaluating both processes and finished product as often they may find themselves in a difficult situation of judging product more than the process or may neglect product completely while focusing mainly on processes. Similarly, teachers intervention in guiding students at different stages of the process is very critical to make approach work efficiently.